© THE AMERICAN NATION, Ninth Edition
                       John A. Garraty

A

abolitionism  Abolitionists sought to end slavery. They were a varied collection of reformers and often disagreed about how to accomplish their goal. Both white reformers and many free blacks were active abolitionists.

Adams, John Quincy  Adams was President Monroe's very successful secretary of state, who, after winning the election of 1824, had a very troubled and unsuccessful single term in the presidency.

Adams, John  Adams was Washington's vice president and defeated Jefferson for the presidency in the election of 1796. During his term he resisted his party's demand for war with France, but lost his bid for reelection in 1800.

Adams-Onis Treaty  In the Adams-Onis Treaty (also known as the Transcontinental Treaty), ratified in 1821, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams gained a favorable western boundary of the Louisiana Territory to the Pacific. Also, the United States purchased Florida, but temporarily surrendered its claim to Spanish Texas.

Adamson Act  The Adamson Act established an eight-hour day for interstate railway workers. It was part of President Wilson's bid to fulfill every plank of his 1912 platform before his reelection campaign in 1916 began. The effort attracted progressives from both parties to vote for Wilson.

Addams, Jane  Jane Addams's Hull House in Chicago was the most famous settlement house in America. Like other settlement houses, it provided social services and practical education to those they served, most of whom were poor immigrants.

affirmative action  Affirmative action is the label given to policies to recruit and promote minorities, women, and handicapped people, purportedly to remedy past discrimination against these groups. Opponents argue that it is reverse discrimination.

Agnew, Spiro  Maryland governor Agnew was elected vice president in 1968 and 1972. Presidential candidate Nixon chose him in order to court southern votes in those elections. Agnew was outspoken in his dislike of antiwar protestors and the liberal media, and was tough on crime. He resigned in 1973, pleading no contest to charges of tax evasion.

Agricultural Adjustment Act  The 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) placed restrictions on farm production and paid government subsidies to growers of staple crops. Money for the payments was raised by a processing tax on middlemen. The object was to raise farm prices, and it did, but the act did nothing for tenant farmers and sharecroppers. The Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional in 1936.

Agricultural Revolution  The process of domesticating (planting, cultivating, and harvesting) plant life for food which occurred worldwide from 7000 to 9000 years ago. It resulted in sedentary living, the division of labor, regional trading, and greater social and political complexity.

Aguinaldo, Emilio  Aguinaldo was the leader of the Filipino rebels who were fighting for independence from Spain when the Spanish-American War began. He helped Commodore Dewey defeat the Spanish at Manila, then, as his goal was Filipino independence, fought American troops in the Philippine-American War (1899-1902).

AIDS  Acquired immune-deficiency syndrome (AIDS), a sexually transmitted disease, is the most deadly disease epidemic in American history.

Alamo  At the onset of the Texas Revolution, Texans lost a major battle at the site of the Alamo (an old mission chapel) in San Antonio. "Remember the Alamo" thereafter became a battle cry for Texans.

Albany Plan  Benjamin Franklin's 1754 Albany (New York) Plan of Union proposed a confederation of the colonies under a Grand Council that would have powers to tax and provide for the common defense. It was rejected by the colonial governments and the British, but was a prototype for colonial union.

Alien and Sedition Acts  In 1798, the Federalist Congress passed the Alien and Sedition acts to attack the Republican party and suppress dissent against the Adams administration and Federalist policies.

America First Committee  The America First Committee, led by aviation hero Charles Lindbergh, was an isolationist organization that in the 1930s opposed any U.S. intervention in world affairs that might lead the United States into war.

American Colonization Society  The American Colonization Society was founded in 1817. It purchased land in Africa (Liberia) with the intention of solving the "Negro problem" by transporting freed slaves there. Society backers were convinced that both blacks and whites would benefit from racial separation. Few blacks wished to migrate to Africa, and the society accomplished little.

American Expeditionary Force  The first elements of the AEF, American troops who served in Europe in World War I, arrived in Paris in July 1917. They were under the command of General John J. Pershing, who insisted that they fight as independent units and not be integrated into British and French forces.

American Federation of Labor  The AFL was a loose alliance of national craft unions, founded by Samuel Gompers in 1886. Unlike its national-union predecessors, it restricted membership to skilled workers, avoided politics, and focused on specific practical objectives for workers: higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions.

American Protective Association  American nativists, who disliked Catholics and minority groups, organized the American Protective Association in 1887. It tried to limit immigration and block the upward mobility of newly arrived "new" immigrants.

American system  The American system was the brainchild of Kentucky Congressman Henry Clay. It involved a political trade-off: in return for eastern support for federal aid to railroad and canal construction, the West would support protective tariffs. This arrangement would stimulate manufacturing and a demand for raw materials, and increase the market for manufactured goods.

American Temperance Society  The founding of the American Temperance Society in 1826 signaled the start of a national crusade against drunkenness. Using a variety of educational techniques, the union set out to persuade people not to drink intoxicating liquor.

anaconda policy  General Winfield Scott's strategy for the Union in the Civil War was to blockade the southern coast, gain control of the Mississippi, and deny the Confederacy access to essential commodities—to squeeze the Confederacy like an anaconda (boa constrictor) snake.

anarchist  Anarchists advocate the overthrow of organized government. They sometimes see cooperatives and voluntary associations of individuals and groups as the best way to organize society. Anarchists called the protest meeting at Haymarket Square in Chicago in 1886, and anarchists shot the manager of the Carnegie Steel Company during the Homestead strike in 1892.

Andros, Edmund  Andros was the governor of the Dominion of New England. When appointed by James II in 1686, he set about abolishing the Massachusetts assembly and enforcing religious toleration. He was deposed in the wake of the England's Glorious Revolution in 1688.

Anglican Church  The Anglican Church became the official Church of England during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603). With its establishment, England assumed leadership of the Protestant world.

anti-Comintern pact  In 1937 Italy, Japan, and Germany signed an agreement aimed at checking the power of the Soviet Union. More importantly, the anti-Comintern pact created the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo alignment of totalitarian and militarist nations (Axis powers) that soon threatened world peace.

anti-imperialists  After the Spanish-American War (1898), American anti-imperialists objected to the annexation of the Philippines and the building of an American empire. Idealism, self-interest, racism, constitutionalism, and other reasons motivated them, but they failed to make their case; the Philippines were annexed in 1900.

Antietam  One of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War occurred at Antietam, Maryland, in 1862. Neither side won a clear victory, but General Lee's invading Confederate army retreated back into Virginia following the battle. President Lincoln announced the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation following the battle.

Antifederalists  Antifederalists opposed ratification of the Constitution; they were states' rightists and were concerned that the Constitution contained no bill of rights. Federalists advocated ratification of the Constitution; they were centralizing nationalists.

Antinomianism  Antinomianism was the view—heretical to Puritans—that those possessing saving grace were exempt from the rules of good behavior and from the laws of the community.

Arthur, Chester A.  Arthur, Garfield's vice president and a former collector of the New York Customs House, became president when Garfield was assassinated in 1881. Like presidents Hayes and Garfield, Arthur was not a strong presidential leader.

Article X   Article X of the League of Nations Covenant in the Treaty of Versailles bound signatories to protect the political independence and territorial integrity of all member nations. It provoked the most opposition to ratification of the treaty in the U.S. Senate.

Articles of Confederation  The Articles, ratified in 1781, were the United States's first constitution. They sharply limited central authority by denying the national government any taxation or coercive power.

artisan  Artisans were self-employed craftsmen and small businessmen engaged in the production of marketable goods or services—tailoring, shoemaking, printing, baking, etc.

Ashcan School  The early-twentieth-century Ashcan School of artists supported progressive political and social reform. They turned to city streets, the slums, and the working class for subject matter.

Austin, Stephen F.   Entrepreneur Stephen Austin contracted with the Mexican government to settle American families in Mexican Texas in the 1820s. Largely through his efforts, by 1830 there were over 20,000 Americans ("Anglos") living in Texas.

B

baby boom  Post-World War II Americans idealized the family. The birth rate boomed and divorce rate dropped after the war. Children born to this postwar generation came to be commonly referred to as "baby boomers."

Bacon's Rebellion  Nathaniel Bacon led an armed rebellion against the royal governor of Virginia, Sir William Berkeley, in 1676. Berkeley's political favoritism, economic exploitation, and Indian policy inspired the rebellion.

Baker v. Carr  In "Baker v. Carr" (1962) and other decisions, the Supreme Court ended unequal representation in state and local legislative bodies by establishing the rule of "one man, one vote." Its effect was to diminish the power of rural areas and increase the representation of cities in state legislatures.

Bakke case  In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled that Allen Bakke, a white male, had been discriminated against when he was denied acceptance to a medical school because the school reserved several places for minorities via its affirmative action program. Nevertheless, the court upheld the use of affirmative action as one tool universities could use for selecting a diverse student body.

balanced constitution  The present-day United States's checks and balances system derives from the balanced (or mixed) constitutional system of Great Britain, wherein the king, nobility, and common people are all ostensibly represented in a self-checking governing system consisting of the monarch, House of Lords, and House of Commons.

Ballinger-Pinchot controversy  Pinchot, the nation's chief forester and an avid conservationist, became involved in a dispute with President Taft's secretary of the interior, Richard Ballinger, in 1910. The controversy centered on the disposition of public land in Alaska. Taft backed his secretary and earned the enmity of Theodore Roosevelt and many proconservation progressives in Congress.

Bank of the United States  In 1791, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton proposed the creation of a joint public and private national bank to store government funds, collect and expend government revenue, and issue bank notes to serve as a national currency.

Bank War  In 1832, President Jackson vetoed a politically motivated proposal to renew the charter of the second Bank of the United States. Jackson's veto message asserted that the Bank was unconstitutional, a specially privileged institution, and vulnerable to control by foreign investors.

Barbary states  Pirates from the Barbary states in north Africa habitually seized trading vessels in the Mediterranean Sea and held crews and passengers for ransom. President Jefferson dispatched a naval squadron to deal with the pirates, but the venture failed, and the United States paid a financial tribute to the Barbary states until 1815.

Barry Goldwater  Arizona senator Goldwater, leader of the extreme conservative wing of the Republican party, was the party's nominee for president in 1964. He was defeated in a landslide victory for Democrat Lyndon Johnson.

Baruch Plan  In 1946, Bernard Baruch, commissioner of the United Nation's Atomic Energy Commission, offered a plan for the eventual outlawing of nuclear weapons. The plan called for UN inspectors to be allowed to find out if any nation was secretly building nuclear weapons, then for the destruction of the only existing stockpile of such weapons, those in the United States.

Battle of Bunker Hill  The misnamed Battle of Bunker Hill was the first major battle of the Revolutionary War, taking place in Boston in June 1775. The British held their position on Breed's Hill, but at great cost. The battle effectively ended any hope of a negotiated settlement between the colonists and Britain.

Battle of Fallen Timbers  In 1794, General Anthony Wayne's army decisively defeated the Indians in Ohio, and the ensuing Treaty of Greenville opened the way for white settlement in the region.

Battle of Little Bighorn  When gold was discovered in the Black Hills Indian Reservation in South Dakota, whites invaded the Indians' lands and drove them on the warpath. The war culminated in June 1876, when Colonel George A. Custer and all his men were killed by Sioux Indians at the Battle of Little Bighorn (Custer's Last Stand)in southern Montana.

Battle of Long Island  In July 1776, British general William Howe drove Washington's defenses out of New York and established British headquarters there. Had he acted more decisively, he probably could have ended the war on the spot.

Battle of New Orleans  Although it was fought two weeks after the Treaty of Ghent was signed, General Andrew Jackson's victory over the British at New Orleans in January 1815 convinced many Americans, inattentive to chronology, that America had won the War of 1812 on the battlefield. Jackson became a celebrated national hero.

Battle of Saratoga  In October 1777, General Burgoyne was forced to surrender his army to General Horatio Gates at Saratoga, New York. Burgoyne's action changed the course and the character of the Revolutionary War, because France chose to ally and extend aid to the colonies in its aftermath.

Battle of the Bulge  In December 1944, the German army launched a counterattack against Allied forces in western Europe. Its advance toward Antwerp, Belgium, created a "bulge" in the Allied lines. By the spring of 1945, the bulge was contained and the Allied line was restored.

Battle of Tippecanoe  In 1811, General William Henry Harrison led his forces against Chief Tecumseh's Indian confederacy at Tippecanoe Creek in the Ohio country. The Indian confederacy was shattered.

Battle of Yorktown  In October 1781, the armies of Washington and Rochambeau together with the French fleet in the Chesapeake trapped General Cornwallis's army at Yorktown, Virginia. Cornwallis's surrender effectively ended the Revolutionary War.

Bay of Pigs  In 1961, an American-backed effort by anti-Castro Cuban exiles to invade Cuba at the Bay of Pigs and force the overthrow of Fidel Castro's government was a dismal failure. It was an embarrassment to the United States and to President Kennedy personally, although the invasion had originally been planned while Eisenhower was president.

Bell, Alexander Graham  Bell invented the first practical telephone in 1876.

Bell, John  Senator John Bell of Tennessee was the presidential nominee of the new Constitutional Union party in 1860. That party supported the Constitution and the laws of the United States. Bell received some support from the border states in the election.

benevolent empire  In the early nineteenth century, a pillar of middle-class life was participation in voluntary associations that were organized to do good work. Collectively these voluntary associations constituted a "benevolent empire" eager to make society over into its middle-class members' idea of how God wanted it to be.

Berkeley, William  Berkeley was the governor of Virginia for over thirty years. He and his policies were the targets of Bacon's Rebellion in 1676.

Bessemer process  The Bessemer process, independently invented by Henry Bessemer and William Kelly in the 1850s, provided the technology that enabled the mass production of high-quality steel. This revolutionized the construction of bridges, buildings, railroads, machine tools, and virtually all other steel products.

Biddle, Nicholas  Biddle was the president of the second Bank of the United States during the Bank War in 1832. He was a competent administrator of the Bank's affairs, especially its regulating the availability of credit by controlling the lending policies of state banks.

Bilingual education  Bilingual education programs, legally required in some states, compel Hispanic elementary school children to be taught in Spanish as well as English for a specified time.

Bill of Rights  The first ten amendments to the Constitution, adopted in 1791, comprise the Bill of Rights. A product of Antifederalist influence, the Bill of Rights protects individual liberties against the power of the national government.

birds of passage  So-called birds of passage were temporary immigrants to America. They were usually single young men who came to America in order to earn enough money to buy land back home. They worked hard, but they had no reason to develop an attachment to American ways.

Birney, James G.  Birney, a former Kentucky slaveowner, was the abolitionist Liberty party's presidential candidate in 1840 and 1844. He received few votes.

Black Codes  Black Codes were special laws passed by southern state governments immediately after the Civil War. They were designed to control former slaves, and to subvert the intent of the Thirteenth Amendment. They outraged Northerners.

Black Death  The Black Death was a mid-fourteenth-century disease (primarily bubonic plague) epidemic that ravaged Europe and helped cause an economic decline.

Black Panthers  The Black Panther Party, headed by black radical Huey Newton, was a violently militant black organization that demanded compensation for the historical legacy of injustice toward blacks in America.

Blaine, James G.  The charming and popular James G. Blaine was the Republican nominee for president in 1884 who lost to Grover Cleveland. His candidacy was hurt by charges of corruption involving the railroads, exposed in the Mulligan letters.

Bleeding Kansas  The contest between proslavery and antislavery settlers for control of Kansas Territory provoked violence and bloodshed in 1855. For partisan reasons, President Pierce's administration failed to implement popular sovereignty peacefully in "Bleeding Kansas."

Board of Trade  The Board of Trade was created in 1696 to advise Parliament concerning colonial policy. It reviewed laws of colonial assemblies and nominated colonial governors.

Boland Amendment  In 1984, Congress adopted the Boland Amendment to ban U.S. military aid to the Contra rebels in Nicaragua.

bonanza farms  Bonanza farms were huge farms covering thousands of acres on the Plains that benefited from the economies of scale made possible by new machinery and outside capital financing.

bonus marchers  In June 1932, 20,000 World War I veterans marched on Washington, D.C., to demand immediate payment of their "adjusted compensation" bonuses voted by Congress in 1924. Congress rejected their demands, and President Hoover had the Bonus Army forcefully removed from their encampment. He feared their ranks were infested with criminals and radicals. It was a public relations disaster for Hoover.

Borah, William E.  Republican senator Borah from Idaho headed the "irreconcilables," who, as isolationists, refused to support U.S. membership in the League of Nations.

Boston Massacre  The Boston Massacre was a violent confrontation between British troops and a Boston mob in 1770. Five citizens were killed when the troops fired on the crowd. The incident inflamed anti-British sentiment in Massachusetts.

Boston Tea Party  The 1773 Boston Tea Party was the colonists' response to Parliament's effort to help the British East India Company sell its surplus tea in America. Colonists saw it as a thinly disguised effort to entice them to pay the tea tax, tricking them into violating their claim to "no taxation without representation." The "party" led to the dumping of British tea into Boston harbor.

Boxer Rebellion  The 1900 Boxer Rebellion in China tested America's new Open Door policy, because it could have provoked European and Japanese retaliation against China that could have led to China's dismemberment.

Bradford, William  Bradford was the governor of Pilgrim Separatists at Plymouth Plantation. He wrote a history of the colony in "Of Plymouth Plantation."

Brandeis, Louis  Brandeis, a lawyer, was the first Jewish member of the Supreme Court. When practicing law, he was a defender of the rights of labor and working people. This was exemplified in his "Brandeis brief" in the "Muller v. Oregon" case.

Breckinridge, John  Breckinridge, President Buchanan's vice president, was nominated for president by the southern wing of the divided Democratic party in 1860. He supported federal protection of slavery in the territories. He won a majority of southern votes, but lost the election to Lincoln.

Brook Farm  In 1841, transcendentalist George Ripley started Brook Farm, a cooperative community. It enjoyed some popularity among New England intellectuals, but lasted only four years.

Brown, John  John Brown was a radical abolitionist who violently attacked slavery. He led the Pottawatomie Massacre against proslavery settlers in Kansas in 1856 and the Harpers Ferry raid in 1859. When he was arrested, tried, and executed for treason, he became a martyr for the abolitionist cause.

Brown v. Board of Education  In 1954, the Supreme Court reversed the "Plessy v. Ferguson" decision (1896) that established the "separate but equal" doctrine. The "Brown" decision found segregation in schools inherently unequal and initiated a long and difficult effort to integrate the nation's public schools.

Bryan, William Jennings  Bryan, on the strength of his famous "Cross of Gold" speech, won the Democratic and Populist parties' nominations for president in 1896. He campaigned widely on a free-silver platform for currency inflation, but was defeated by Republican William McKinley. He was later President Wilson's secretary of state, and a leading figure in the 1924 Scopes trial.

Brzezinski, Zbigniew  Brzezinski was President Carter's national security advisor who favored confrontation rather than détente with the Soviet Union. He also advised Carter to use China to outmaneuver the Soviets, and in 1978, the United States formally recognized the Red Chinese government.

Buchanan, James  Buchanan was an experienced diplomat and, in 1854,a coauthor of the notorious Ostend Manifesto. He won the presidency as the nominee of the Democratic party in 1856. The Democratic party divided along north-south lines during his term, and he was paralyzed by indecision during the secession crisis of 1860-1861.

bull market  A "bull" market sees rising prices on the stock market; falling prices mean a "bear" market. The stock market was bullish in the 1920s until the great crash of late 1929 ended the speculative mania.

Bull Moose  When he was unable to win the Republican nomination in 1912, Theodore Roosevelt's followers founded the Progressive Party, popularly known as the Bull Moose party, to support his bid for the presidency.

Burger, Warren  President Nixon appointed Burger chief justice in 1969. He was a conservative and an advocate of judicial restraint.

Burr, Aaron  Burr tied Jefferson for the presidency in the electoral college vote in 1800 and became vice president. He later killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel and was acquitted of conspiring to commit treason when he was party to a mysterious scheme involving the Southwest Territory.

Bush, George  Bush, Reagan's vice president, was elected president in 1988. More moderate than his predecessor, he nevertheless promised the American people "no new taxes."

C

Cabot, John  Cabot was the seafarer whose explorations of Newfoundland and northeast North America in 1497 and 1498 established England's claim to New World territory.

Calhoun, John C.  Calhoun had a long and active career as a leader in Congress, representing South Carolina in the Senate. He was President Monroe's secretary of war, and was instrumental in all the major legislative battles from the War of 1812 to the Compromise of 1850. He authored the doctrine of nullification that paved the way for the more radical doctrine of secession.

Calvert, Cecilius   George and Cecilius Calvert, the Lords Baltimore and English Catholics, established the proprietary colony of Maryland in 1634 as a haven for English Catholics and for their own economic advantage.

Calvert, George  George and Cecilius Calvert, the Lords Baltimore, and English Catholics established the proprietary colony of Maryland in 1634 as a haven for English Catholics and for their own economic advantage.

Calvin, John  Calvin was a Swiss Protestant leader and reformer whose ideas informed the religious doctrines of the Pilgrims and Puritans who later migrated to America.

Cambodian incursion  In 1970, President Nixon dispatched U.S. troops in Vietnam to destroy Viet Cong sanctuaries in neighboring Cambodia. The incursion was brief and not very productive. Its chief consequence was to provoke unprecedented antiwar sentiment and protest in the United States.

Cambridge Agreement  Puritan stockholders in the Massachusetts Bay Company drafted the Cambridge Agreement in 1629, wherein they agreed to migrate to the New World with their families if they could take the company charter with them. It led to the founding of Massachusetts Bay colony in 1630 and the Puritans' Great Migration.

Camp David Accords  In 1978, President Carter mediated a peace agreement between Egypt and Israel. Carter and the leaders of the two countries negotiated the settlement at Camp David, a presidential retreat near Washington, D.C.

Cannon, Joseph  In 1910, progressive insurgents in the House of Representatives, led by George Norris, stripped Speaker Joseph Cannon of his control of the Rules Committee. Thereafter, party caucuses made committee appointments. This eliminated some of the arbitrary power of the Speaker of the House of Representatives.

Capone, Al   Chicago gangster Al Capone grew rich on the bootleg liquor traffic during Prohibition in the 1920s.

Carmichael, Stokely   Carmichael was chairman of SNCC when, in the mid-1960s, it turned radical and opposed further cooperation with white liberals in the civil rights movement. He believed integration was a subterfuge for white supremacy.

Carnegie, Andrew  Carnegie organized the Carnegie Steel Company, which dominated the industry for years. In his later years he turned his time and great wealth to philanthropic pursuits.

carpetbaggers  Carpetbaggers were Northerners who went to the South after the Civil War. They were a mixed lot of idealists and self-interested seekers of political and economic opportunity.

Carranza, Venustiano  Carranza, a supporter of representative government, became president of Mexico in 1914. President Wilson extended diplomatic recognition to his government as a way to help Mexico's constitutionalists regain order in the country.

Carter, Jimmy  Carter, a former governor of Georgia, was elected president in 1976. He was inexperienced in national politics and had a troubled single term in the presidency.

case workers  Case workers were a new class of professional social workers who emerged in the late nineteenth century. They were dedicated to studying and alleviating the conditions of the poor.

Cass, Lewis  Cass was a Democratic senator from Michigan who, during the debate on the Wilmot Proviso, proposed the idea of squatter, or popular, sovereignty as a way to solve the problem of slavery in the territories.

Centennial Exposition  Americans celebrated one hundred years of nationhood at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, where the focus was on the wonders of modern machinery.

Chambers, Whittaker  Chambers, a former communist and editor of "Time" magazine accused former State Department official Alger Hiss of having been a communist in the 1930s. Hiss sued Chambers for libel, but was himself tried and convicted of perjury.

Champlain, Samuel de  Champlain was the French explorer who in 1608 founded Quebec, the first permanent French settlement in the New World.

Chase, Samuel  Associate Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase became a target of President Jefferson's first-term attack on the federal judiciary. However, Chase was found innocent of any "high crimes and misdemeanors," the standard required by the Constitution to remove a federal judge.

Chavez, Cesar  Chavez organized Mexican immigrant farm laborers into the United Farm Workers union in the 1970s. He used strikes, boycotts, and nonviolent resistance to protest unfair labor practices by the growers.

Chesapeake incident  The United States naval vessel "Chesapeake" was fired upon and boarded by British officers in 1807, and four sailors were impressed into service for the Royal Navy. The incident provoked a clamor for war in the United States, but President Jefferson asked Congress for the Embargo Act instead.

Chiang Kai-shek  Chiang was the leader of the noncommunist nationalist government in China in the 1940s. His government was corrupt and unpopular and was overthrown in 1949 by Communist rebels led by Mao Tse-tung.

Chinese Exclusion Act  The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act excluded Chinese immigrant workers for ten years and denied U.S. citizenship to Chinese nationals living in the United States.

Chisholm Trail  The Chisholm Trail was one of the first, busiest, and most famous cattle trails from the open range of south Texas to the railhead in Abilene, Kansas.

Chivington massacre  Also known as the Sand Creek massacre, the Chivington massacre occurred in Colorado in 1864. A party of state militia commanded by John Chivington massacred a Cheyenne Indian community in an unprovoked, vicious, and bloodthirsty raid.

Church of England  The Anglican Church became the official church of England during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603). With its establishment, England assumed the leadership of the Protestant world.

Churchill, Winston  Churchill was prime minister of Britain from 1940 to 1945 and, with Stalin and Roosevelt, one of the "Big Three" Allied leaders. His mastery of the English language and steady leadership inspired the British people during the dark days of World War II.

circular letter  In 1768 the Massachusetts assembly circulated among the other colonies a document denouncing the Townshend duties. The circular letter claimed that the duties infringed on the colonists' natural and constitutional rights.

city commission  The city-commission form of city government was an invention of progressives and was designed to concentrate responsibility and make it easier to coordinate complex activities. The system integrated executive and legislative powers in the hands of a small elected commission. It was first experimented with in Galveston, Texas.

city manager  The city-manager system of city government was an invention of progressives and was designed to bring expertise and efficiency to city government. In this system, elected commissioners appointed a nonpartisan professional manager to administer city affairs. It enjoyed exemplary success in Dayton, Ohio.

Civil Rights Act  The 1866 Civil Rights Act declared that blacks were citizens of the United States and denied states the power to restrict African Americans' basic civil rights. Congress overrode President Johnson's veto of the bill.

Civil Rights Act of 1957  In response to African Americans' demands for unhindered voter registration in the South, Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1957. It authorized the attorney general to use injunctions to block interference with black voter registration, created an investigative civil rights commission, and created a civil rights division in the Justice Department.

Civil Rights Act of 1964  The landmark 1964 Civil Rights Act made illegal the segregation of races in public facilities, lessened discrimination in employment, and protected the voting rights of racial minorities.

Civilian Conservation Corps  During the Hundred Days, Congress created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) to provide government jobs to young men between eighteen and twenty-five in reforestation and other conservation projects. One of the most popular New Deal programs, it eventually employed over 300,000.

Clay, Henry  Clay was one of the preeminent leaders in Congress from the War of 1812 to the Compromise of 1850. He was instrumental in fashioning the Missouri Compromise, a compromise solution to the nullification crisis, and the Compromise of 1850. He also espoused the "American System" for national economic development.

Clayton Antitrust Act  The 1914 Clayton Antitrust Act strengthened the antitrust laws. It outlawed interlocking directorates, exempted labor unions from antitrust laws, and limited the use of injunctions in labor disputes.

Clemenceau, Georges  Clemenceau, premier of France in 1919, represented his nation's interest as part of the "Big Four" at the Versailles peace conference. French security and the crippling of Germany were his primary focus, and he was cynical toward President Wilson's "peace without victory."

Cleveland, Grover  Cleveland, who was elected president in 1884 and 1892, was the only Democrat to be elected president between 1856 and 1912. Like the Republican presidents of the time, he held a narrow view of presidential power, although he did try to lead Congress toward tariff reform.

Clinton, Bill  Clinton was the Democratic presidential candidate in 1992. By focusing on the recessed state of the national economy and promising economic revitalization, he defeated incumbent president George Bush. Clinton won reelection in 1996 although the Republicans won a stunning victory in congressional elections.

Coercive Acts  Parliament responded to the Boston Tea Party by passing the Coercive Acts in 1774. They were unjust acts in that they were intended to punish Boston and Massachusetts generally for the crime committed by a few individuals. Colonists called these the Intolerable Acts.

Collier, John  President Franklin Roosevelt named Collier commissioner of Indian affairs. Collier successfully urged Congress to pass the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 to replace the 1887 Dawes Severalty Act. This restored tribal government.

colonial wars  Three colonial wars were fought between England and France between 1689 and 1748. In these, the American colonists were only peripherally involved.

Columbus, Christopher   Columbus was an Italian seafarer commissioned by the Spanish monarchs to establish a western trade route to the Orient. He discovered the New World in 1492 and opened the Western Hemisphere to exploration and settlement from Europe.

Committee on Public Information  During World War I, President Wilson created the CPI and appointed journalist George Creel to head it. The committee's objective was to maximize national loyalty and support for the war. It was a hard-working wartime propaganda organization.

committees of correspondence  Colonial radicals formed these committees in 1772 in order to step up communications among the colonies and to plan joint action in case of trouble. Their organization was a key step in the direction of establishing an organized colony-wide resistance movement.

common man  The Americans of Andrew Jackson's day (1820-1840) found it easy to believe that every person was as competent and as politically important as his neighbor. This view led to the glorification of ordinariness and made mediocrity a virtue. It also led to a democratizing of American politics in the period.

Commonwealth of Independent States  The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a loose alignment of former Soviet republics led by Boris Yeltsin, president of the Russian Republic.

Commonwealthmen  Commonwealthmen were British essayists who criticized the corruption pervading their nation's political life and warned that if English subjects were not vigilant, they would lose their property and liberty to tyrannical rulers. By the 1760s and 1770s, American revolutionaries had become well read in the Commonwealthmen's point of view.

Compromise of 1850  The Compromise of 1850 was Congress's attempt to settle several outstanding issues involving slavery. It banned the slave trade, but not slavery, in Washington, D.C.; admitted California as a free state; applied popular sovereignty to the remaining Mexican cession territory; settled the Texas-New Mexico boundary dispute; and imposed a more stringent Fugitive Slave Law.

Compromise of 1877  Allegedly, a deal was struck in 1877 to settle the disputed outcome of the 1876 presidential election. In this so-called Compromise of 1877, Democrats accepted the election of the Republican, Rutherford Hayes. In return, Republicans agreed to withdraw federal troops from the South and end Reconstruction.

Comstock Law  The 1873 Comstock Law prohibited the mailing or transporting of "obscene, lewd, or lascivious" articles. It was interpreted to apply to information on birth control, and birth control advocate Margaret Sanger was arrested for violating it.

Comstock Lode  The Comstock Lode, the richest discovery in the history of gold and silver mining, was discovered near Virginia City, Nevada.

concentration  "Concentration" was the policy adopted by the U.S. government to deal with Native Americans in the late nineteenth century. Indians were persuaded to accept defined limits to their hunting ground. This enabled the government to negotiate with each tribe separately—a strategy of divide and conquer.

Congress of Industrial Organizations  The New Deal's support for labor organizations fostered the creation of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). It organized the workers in mass production industries like steel and automobiles, and it did much to improve the working conditions of unskilled workers, increase the political influence of labor, and bring minorities and women into the labor movement.

conquistadores  Brave, brutal, and imaginative Spanish conquerors of the New World, conquistadores were noted for their mistreatment of Native Americans.

conscription  Both the Confederates (in 1862) and the Union (in 1863) raised manpower during the Civil War by military draft, or conscription. This coercive measure was resented in both the North and the South and was the cause of a riot in New York City. The bulk of the fighting forces in both armies were raised through voluntary enlistment.

containment doctrine  "Containment" was the basis of American foreign policy from the close of World War II in 1945 to the end of the Cold War in 1989. The policy assumed that the Soviet Union intended to expand its boundaries and spread its communist ideology and that both efforts must be contained by the Western powers led by the United States.

Continental Association  The First Continental Congress called for the boycott of British goods and the stoppage of exports to England. The Continental Association was created to enforce these measures.

Continental System  Napoleon's Continental System was supposed to make Europe economically self-sufficient and isolate Britain by depriving it of its European markets. The system ignored America's claims to neutral rights.

Contras  Contras were Nicaraguan counterrevolutionaries ("contra" means "against") who tried to overthrow the Sandinista government in Nicaragua. The Contras were backed by the Reagan administration.

Convention of Mortefontaine  The Convention of Mortefontaine (also known as the Convention of 1800) was negotiated with Napoleon. It ended the Franco-American Alliance of 1778, removed some French restrictions on U.S. commerce, and ended the Quasi-War provoked by the XYZ Affair.

cooperationists  Some Southerners disagreed with South Carolina's precipitous and unilateral act of secession in 1861 and suggested instead that the South should hold a convention and act as a unit rather than as individual states. However, following South Carolina's precedent, southern states seceded one at a time.

Copperheads  Copperheads were mostly northern Democrats who opposed all measures in support of war against the Confederacy. They wanted a negotiated peace.

Cornwallis, Charles   General Cornwallis commanded British troops in the South in 1778-1781. He was surrounded and forced to surrender at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the Revolutionary War.

corrupt bargain  In the controversial election of 1824, John Quincy Adams opened himself to the charge of having won the presidency by virtue of a "corrupt bargain" with Henry Clay. Employing his great influence in the House of Representatives, Clay swung the House vote for Adams for president. Adams then appointed Clay his secretary of state.

cotton gin  A Northerner, Eli Whitney, invented the cotton gin in 1793, thereby revolutionizing the southern economy and giving slavery a new life in the South. The gin (engine) was a device for separating the seed of short-staple cotton from the fiber.

cotton gin  Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin (engine) in 1793. It simplified the separation of the cotton seed from the fiber, enormously expanding the production of cotton. As a result, the plantation system grew and the demand for slave labor increased.

cotton kingdom  The "cotton kingdom" or "King Cotton" were terms used to refer to the antebellum South, whose economy was largely dependent on one cash crop, cotton.

Coughlin, Charles  Father Charles Coughlin, a Catholic priest, advocated on his popular radio show that inflating the currency could solve the Great Depression. He turned against the New Deal, and verbally attacked bankers, New Dealers, and Jews.

court-packing scheme  Concerned that the conservative Supreme Court might declare all his New Deal programs unconstitutional, President Roosevelt asked Congress to allow him to appoint more sympathetic justices to the Court. Both Congress and the public rejected this "court-packing" scheme and it was defeated.

Coxey, Jacob  In 1894, Ohio small-town businessman Jacob Coxey led an "army" of unemployed workers to Washington, D.C. They demanded a federal public-works program to make jobs available to those left unemployed by the Panic of 1893. He was arrested for trespassing on the White House lawn.

crack  "Crack" is a cheap, smokeable, and highly addictive form of cocaine. Its widespread use is a symptom of the "drug problem" in contemporary America.

Creel, George  During World War I, President Wilson created the Committee on Public Information (CPI) and appointed journalist George Creel to head it. The committee's objective was to maximize national loyalty and support for the war. It was a hard-working wartime propaganda organization.

Crittenden Plan  During the secession crisis in 1860-1861, Kentucky senator John Crittenden offered a North-South compromise on slavery. He proposed a constitutional amendment recognizing slavery in all territory south of 36 degrees 30 minutes latitude (the Missouri Compromise line), and an unalterable amendment protecting slavery in slave states. President-elect Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the plan.

crop-lien system  To finance the sharecropping system, Southerners turned to the crop-lien system. Landowners and sharecroppers borrowed (at high interest rates) against the future harvest. Lenders, usually local merchants, insisted that they produce cash crops like cotton. The system made landowners and sharecroppers dependent on the merchants, and prevented the development of diversified farming in the South.

Cuban missile crisis  In 1962, the United States and Soviet Union came close to nuclear war when the United States insisted that the Soviets remove their missiles from Cuba. The Soviets eventually did so, nuclear war was averted, and the crisis passed.

Cult of True Womanhood  Early nineteenth-century male expectations of the role of women in society reflected a "cult of true womanhood." In this conception, a woman was expected to be pious, pure, submissive, and domesticated; her place was in the home and on a pedestal. This is also known as the cult of domesticity.

Custer, George A.  Colonel Custer commanded a detachment of the Seventh Cavalry that was annihilated at the Battle of Little Bighorn in Montana in June 1876.

Czolgosz, Leon  Czolgosz, an anarchist, assassinated President William McKinley in 1901, making Vice President Theodore Roosevelt the new president.

D

D-Day  D-Day—June 6, 1944—was the day Allied troops crossed the English Channel and opened a second front in western Europe. The "D" stands for "disembarkation"—to leave a ship and go ashore.

Daley, Richard  In 1968, Chicago mayor Daley surrounded the Democratic National Convention hall with police. During the convention, Chicago police rioted in response to antiwar demonstrations and hundreds of protestors were beaten and arrested.

Darrow, Clarence   Darrow, a noted defense lawyer for radical and lost causes, was John Scopes's defense attorney in the monkey trial in 1924. His defense rested on exposing the childlike faith and abysmal ignorance of science of religious fundamentalists like William Jennings Bryan.

Dartmouth College v. Woodward  In "Dartmouth College v. Woodward" (1819), the Supreme Court ruled that a charter granted by a state was a contract and could not be canceled or altered without the consent of both parties. The ruling caused states to spell out the limitations of corporate charters in greater detail.

Davis, Jefferson  Davis became the first (and only) president of the Confederate States of America. He had been a respected senator from Mississippi and former secretary of war, but Davis proved unable to provide strong national leadership for the Confederacy during the Civil War.

Dawes Severalty Act  In the Dawes Severalty Act (1887), Indian tribal lands were split up into individual land allotments. Provisions were made for Indian education and eventual citizenship. The law led to corruption, exploitation, and the weakening of Native American tribal culture. It was replaced in 1934.

De Bow's Review  "De Bow's Review" was a southern journal founded in 1846 that was dedicated to trade, commerce, and manufacturing. Its editors called for greater economic independence in the South through the diversification of agriculture, the development of industry, and an improved transportation system.

de Gaulle, Charles  French General de Gaulle organized a Free French government in exile after the collapse of France to German invasion in 1940. He later became president of the Fifth Republic in France (1959-1969).

de Lome letter  Dupuy de Lème was the Spanish minister to the United States in the 1890s. In a private letter to a friend, he made several insulting remarks about President McKinley. The letter was published in February 1898 and inflamed American anti-Spanish sentiment, moving the United States and Spain closer to war.

Dean, John  During the congressional Watergate hearings in 1973, President Nixon's lawyer, John Dean, gave extensive testimony implicating the president in a Dean-directed cover-up of the Watergate break-in.

Debs, Eugene V.  Debs was the president of the American Railway Union, which struck the Pullman Palace Car Company in the 1894 Pullman strike. Debs was arrested for violating a court injunction, a sentence upheld by the Supreme Court in "In re Debs" (1895), which ruled injunctions were legal in labor disputes, thus hindering the effectiveness of labor strikes.

Declaration of Independence  Written by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence justified the American Revolution by reference to republican theory and to the many injustices of King George III toward the colonies.

Declaration of War, 1812  President Madison listed British violations of American neutrality, impressment, incitement of the Indians, and the defense of national honor as justifications for war in his war message to Congress in June 1812.

Declaratory Act  Parliament passed the 1766 Declaratory Act when it repealed the Stamp Act. It stated that the colonies were subordinate to Parliament's authority.

deregulation  President Reagan's conservative philosophy included the concept of cutting back on the scope of federal agencies and limiting their impact on American business. Instead, the president intended the marketplace rather than the federal bureaucracy to direct the nation's economy.

Desert Storm  Desert Storm was the code name given the United Nations' successful military effort to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi occupation in 1991.

destroyers-for-bases deal  In 1940, President Roosevelt arranged to trade fifty old American naval destroyers to Britain in exchange for some Caribbean naval bases. It was a shrewd deal that helped save Britain's fleet and bolstered U.S. defenses in the Atlantic.

detente  Detente is a French term meaning the "relaxation of tensions." The word was used to identify U.S.-Soviet and U.S.-Chinese relations in the 1970s, as the superpowers pursued friendlier relations with one another.

detention centers  The U.S. government, fearing they might be disloyal, segregated and detained over 120,000 Japanese Americans in detention centers or internment camps in interior western states during World War II.

Dewey, George  Commodore Dewey, commander of the Asiatic (naval) Squadron, steamed from Hong Kong to Manila in the Philippines as the Spanish-American War began in 1898. He quickly defeated the Spanish fleet and gained control of Manila.

Dewey, John  The "father" of progressive education, John Dewey published "The School and Society" (1899) to suggest the need for an education that was practical and useful. He insisted that education should be child centered and that schools should build character, teach good citizenship, and be instruments of social reform.

Dewey, Thomas E.  Dewey, a successful governor of New York, was the Republican candidate for president in 1944, when he lost to Roosevelt, and in 1948, when he lost to Truman.

Dickinson, John  Before the Revolutionary War, Dickinson published the "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania" in which he denied Parliament the right to tax the colonies. In the Second Continental Congress, Dickinson chaired a committee that drafted an unpopular plan for creating a strong central government.

Diem, Ngo Dinh  Diem was the president of South Vietnam from 1954 to 1963. He was a Catholic in a largely Buddhist nation and an intense anticommunist. The United States backed his increasingly ineffective government until Diem was killed during a coup in 1963.

Dien Bien Phu  In 1954, French troops were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in northern Vietnam. This effectively ended French colonization in Vietnam and bolstered the cause of Vietnamese nationalism. Vietnam's nationalist leader, Ho Chi Minh, was a communist.

Dingley Tariff  The 1897 Dingley Tariff raised rates on most imports and added new items to the rate list, nearly eliminating the reduced rates of the 1894 Wilson-Gorman Tariff.

Dix, Dorothea  In the early nineteenth century, Dix devoted herself to a campaign to improve the care of the insane. She traveled extensively inspecting asylums, prisons, and almshouses, but in the long run, her hopes for reform were not realized.

doctrine of two spheres  In the middle-class family of early-nineteenth-century America, the wife, who had earlier shared in the family's enterprise, now left earning a living entirely to her husband. That his sphere was public and hers private, singularly devoted to the care of her husband and children, constituted the doctrine of two (or separate) spheres.

dollar diplomacy  Dollar diplomacy was a foreign policy associated with the presidency of William Howard Taft. It reasoned that American economic penetration would bring stability and safety to underdeveloped nations, particularly in Latin America and Asia, and bring profit and power to the United States.

Dominion of New England  The Dominion was a governing scheme installed by King James II in the 1680s, designed to impose greater imperial supervision over the New England colonies and New York. It was governed by Edmund Andros, who made himself obnoxious to the Massachusetts Bay Puritans.

Douglas, Stephen A.   Democratic senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois managed the congressional maneuvering that resulted in the Compromise of 1850. He championed popular sovereignty in the 1850s and introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854. He and Abraham Lincoln engaged in a classic political debate in 1858, and he was the northern Democratic presidential candidate in 1860.

Douglass, Frederick  Douglass was a former slave who escaped to the North and became active in the abolitionist movement. He was a determined campaigner against both slavery and racial prejudice.

Dred Scott decision  In "Dred Scott v. Sandford" (1857), the Supreme Court ruled that blacks were not citizens and could not sue in a federal court, and that Congress had no constitutional authority to ban slavery from a territory—that, in effect, the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional. The decision threatened both the central plank of the Republican party, Free-Soil, and the concept of popular sovereignty.

Dreiser, Theodore  "Sister Carrie" was Dreiser's first and most famous novel. Firmly set in the genre of naturalism, the novel treated the grim world of the exhausted factory worker and the subject of sex so forthrightly that it was withdrawn after its publication.

Du Bois, W. E. B.  Du Bois was a more militant spokesman for blacks at the turn of the twentieth century than was Booker T. Washington. He disagreed with Washington's accommodationist posture and called upon blacks to insist on equal rights. He was a founder of the NAACP and editor of its journal, "The Crisis."

Dukakis, Michael  Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis was the presidential candidate of the Democratic party in 1988.

Duke of York  James, Duke of York, the brother of Charles II, became the proprietor of the English colony of New York in 1664 when it was seized from the Dutch.

Dulles, John Foster  Dulles was President Eisenhower's secretary of state in the 1950s. He was a very experienced diplomat, a moralist, and an intense anticommunist. He proposed a more aggressive and offensive policy to combat communism, but the Eisenhower administration generally adhered to the containment doctrine initiated by President Truman.

E

economic royalists  During the 1936 presidential campaign, President Roosevelt abandoned any effort to court the business community, which had not been cooperative with his New Deal, and took to referring to businessmen as "economic royalists." By this crass class appeal, he meant to gain political support from the popular dislike of "greedy" businessmen in the 1930s.

Edison, Thomas A.  Edison, a prolific inventor, organized a modern research laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey. He eventually acquired over a thousand patents. Among his major inventions was the electric lightbulb.

Edwards, Jonathan  Edwards was an American revivalist of the Great Awakening. He was both deeply pious and passionately devoted to intellectual pursuits.

Eisenhower, Dwight  General Eisenhower, or "Ike," commanded Allied forces in Europe in World War II. He planned the Normandy invasion for D-Day. He was later elected president and served two terms from 1953 to 1961.

election of 1800  In the election of 1800, both Jefferson and Aaron Burr received seventy-three votes in the electoral college. Because of the tie, the Constitution required that the House of Representatives, voting by states, choose between them. Jefferson was elected. The Twelfth Amendment was adopted to prevent a similar occurrence in the future.

election of 1828  In 1828, Andrew Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams's bid for reelection to the presidency. The campaign was filled with personal attacks on both candidates, but the mudslinging turned out an unusually high number of voters.

election of 1840  In 1840, the newly organized Whig party adopted the campaign tactics of the Jacksonians and elected William Henry Harrison as president. Like Jackson, Harrison was a popular military hero who concealed or ignored the issues. He, like Jackson, was presented to the voters as a common man.

electoral college  The Constitutional Convention adopted the electoral college system as a method of electing presidents. Each state had electors equal in number to its representation in Congress. Each elector cast two votes for president, but if no candidate received a majority, the election would be decided in the House of Representatives.

electoral commission  In 1877, Congress created a special electoral commission to decide the disputed outcome of the electoral college vote in the 1876 presidential election. The eight Republicans and seven Democrats on the commission awarded all twenty disputed votes to Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes, and he won the electoral college vote and the presidency, 185 to 184.

Queen Elizabeth I  Elizabeth I was the queen of England from 1558 to 1603. She encouraged early efforts at English colonization in America, but was cautious with royal funds.

Emancipation Proclamation  The Emancipation Proclamation went into effect on January 1, 1863. It freed all slaves in areas in rebellion against the United States (the Confederacy). It made emancipation a war goal and speeded the demise of slavery.

Embargo Act  The 1807 Embargo Act was provoked by the "Chesapeake" incident and prohibited all exports from American ports. President Jefferson hoped to pressure Britain and France into recognizing neutral rights, but the embargo damaged the U.S. economy instead and was bitterly resented, especially in New England.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo  Emerson was the leading transcendentalist thinker of the early nineteenth century. Optimism and self-confidence marked his philosophy, and, like other romantics, he glorified individualism and self-reliance. He described his beliefs in "The American Scholar."

encomienda  Under the encomienda system, Spanish monarchs rewarded New World conquistadores by giving them control of Indian lands, villages, and labor. Conquistadores were supposed to protect the Indians, but more often exploited them.

entitlements  Entitlements are government programs involving the expenditure of funds to which recipients are "entitled" owing to a special condition. Social Security is the largest federal entitlement program. Others include Medicare and Medicaid.

enumerated goods  The Navigation Act of 1660 specified certain "enumerated" goods, including sugar, cotton, and tobacco, that the colonists could ship only to English ports.

Equal Rights Amendment  In 1967, the National Organization for Women (NOW) advocated an Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution that would outlaw discrimination on the basis of sex. Congress proposed the amendment in 1972, but it was never ratified by the states.

Era of Good Feeling  The Era of Good Feeling lasted from 1817 to 1823 during the Monroe presidency. During the era, party rivalry diminished and a confident spirit of postwar nationalism pervaded the nation.

Erie Canal  The construction of the 364-mile Erie Canal initiated the canal boom of the 1820s and 1830s. The Erie Canal was financed by the state of New York with public funds. Begun in 1817, it was completed in 1825 and was an immediate financial success.

F

Fair Employment Practices Committee  When blacks demanded equal employment opportunities in 1941, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802—an order prohibiting discrimination in plants with defense contracts. The FEPC was created to enforce the order.

Farewell Address  President Washington decided not to seek reelection in 1796. Near the end of his term he delivered a farewell address that warned the nation against the bad effects of rivalry between political parties and to beware the dangers of permanent alliances with foreign nations.

Farmers' Alliance  As it spread throughout the South in the 1880s, the Farmers' Alliance stressed cooperation among farmers both black and white. Their marketing cooperatives usually failed, pushing many farmers to become economic and social radicals. The Alliance enjoyed some electoral success in 1890 and helped organize the Populist party in 1892.

favorable balance of trade  To achieve a "favorable balance of trade," a nation sought to maximize exports of its own goods and limit imports of foreign goods, so as to remain a creditor in international trade. England's mercantile system introduced in the Navigation Acts was designed to guarantee England a favorable balance of trade.

Federal Reserve Act  In 1913, the Federal Reserve Act gave the United States a central banking system governed by a Federal Reserve Board, which controlled the rediscount rate and thus the money supply.

Federal Trade Commission  The FTC, created in 1914, replaced the Bureau of Corporations. This nonpartisan commission investigated and reported on corporate behavior and could issue cease-and-desist orders against unfair trade practices.

Federalist Papers  Alexander Hamilton, with the help of James Madison and John Jay, produced "The Federalist Papers," a brilliant series of essays explaining and defending the stronger national government created by the Constitutional Convention of 1787.

Federalist party  One of the original two political parties, the Federalist party was organized by Alexander Hamilton and generally stood for strong national government, a mercantilist economy, implied constitutional powers, and friendship with Britain.

Federalists  Federalists advocated ratification of the Constitution; they were centralizing nationalists. Antifederalists opposed ratification of the Constitution; they were states' rightists and were concerned that the Constitution contained no bill of rights.

The Feminine Mystique  In her book "The Feminine Mystique" (1963), feminist Betty Friedan attacked the cultural assumptions about women's "proper" place being in the home. Friedan argued that the assumed domesticity of women robbed them of the capacity to use their intelligence and their talent for creativity.

Ferdinand and Isabella  Ferdinand and Isabella were the Spanish monarchs who sponsored and financed Christopher Columbus's voyages to the New World. They hoped he would find a western, all-water route to the Orient that would give Spain access to Asian wealth and goods.

Ferraro, Geraldine  Ferraro was the first woman ever nominated for the vice presidency by a major political party. She was nominated by the Democrats in 1984.

Fetterman massacre  In 1866, a tribe of Oglala Sioux under Chief Red Cloud, provoked by the building of the Bozeman Trail through their hunting ground in southern Montana, massacred a U.S. army unit commanded by Captain W. J. Fetterman.

Fifteenth Amendment  The Fifteenth Amendment (1870) forbade all the states to deny the vote to anyone on the account of race, color, or for having been a slave. It was intended to guarantee African Americans the right to vote in the South.

Finney, Charles G.   Finney was probably the most effective of a number of charismatic evangelists who brought the Second Great Awakening to its crest in the early 1830s. He encouraged his listeners to take their salvation into their own hands and preached that salvation was available to anyone.

First Continental Congress  Delegates from twelve colonies attended the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1774. The Congress denied Parliament's authority to legislate for the colonies, condemned British actions toward the colonies dating to 1763, created a Continental Association, and endorsed a call to take up arms.

Fitzgerald, F. Scott  Fitzgerald was the symbol of the "lost generation" of American writers in the 1920s. He wrote "The Great Gatsby" and "Tender Is the Night."

Fitzhugh, George  George Fitzhugh was a leading advocate of a paternalistic sociological defense of slavery. He argued that blacks needed the guidance, restraint, and protection of white masters. He also compared the treatment of southern slaves favorably to that of free blacks and to whites working in northern factories.

flexible response  President Kennedy revised the Eisenhower military doctrine of massive retaliation that relied on nuclear threats to a new doctrine of flexible response—more emphasis on conventional forces and counterinsurgency warfare.

Foraker Act  The Foraker Act (1900) established Puerto Rico as an unorganized U.S. territory. Puerto Ricans were not given U.S. citizenship, but the U.S. president appointed the island's governor and a governing council.

Force acts  Congress attacked the Ku Klux Klan with three "Force" acts in 1870-1871. They placed state elections under federal jurisdiction and imposed fines and imprisonment on those guilty of interfering with any citizen exercising his right to vote. They were designed to protect black voters in the South.

Ford, Gerald  Ford was a long-time Republican congressman from Michigan. When Vice President Agnew resigned in 1973, Ford replaced him, and when President Nixon resigned the presidency, Ford became president. He was defeated in the 1976 presidential election by Democrat Jimmy Carter.

Ford, Henry  Ford was the person most responsible for the growth of the automobile industry in America. His key insights were to lower the price of cars to make them available to a mass market and to pay good wages to get high production from his employees.

Fordney-McCumber Tariff  The 1922 Fordney-McCumber Act raised general tariff rates to their highest point in American history. It also empowered the president to adjust tariff rates to some degree.

Fort Sumter  The Confederate firing on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, signaled the beginning of the Civil War.

Four Power Treaty  At the Washington Conference in 1921, the United States, Britain, France, and Japan signed the Four Power Treaty agreeing to respect one another's interests in the Pacific.

Fourteen Points  In January 1918, President Wilson outlined a peace plan with fourteen points, including no secret diplomacy, freedom of the seas, free trade, arms reduction, noncolonization, and national self-determination.

Fourteenth Amendment  The Fourteenth Amendment provided citizenship to freedmen after the Civil War and guaranteed them, and all Americans, federally protected equal rights under the law. Its provisions were used by Radical Republicans to enact a congressionally controlled Reconstruction policy for the former Confederate states.

Franco-American Alliance  The French and Americans signed a commercial treaty and a formal treaty of alliance in 1778. They agreed to aid each other, and the French guaranteed the sovereignty and independence of the United States.

Franklin, Ben   Franklin was a Philadelphia printer and critic of Pennsylvania's royal governors. He also expressed concern over the large number of clannish Germans who settled in the Pennsylvania backcountry. He later became an American diplomat and statesman in the Revolutionary

free blacks   Free blacks were African Americans in the North and South who were not slaves.

free silver  Advocates of an inflationary currency policy to raise prices adopted "free silver" as their slogan. Their aim was to inflate the currency and raise, specifically, farm prices, by requiring that the government purchase and coin all the silver brought to it and adopt a bimetallic (gold and silver) monetary standard.

Free Speech Movement  The first student protest of the 1960s came at the University of California at Berkeley, in 1964. There, veterans of the civil rights movement staged sit-ins to protest university policies that restricted political advocacy on the campus.

Free-Soil party  In 1848, antislavery Democrats joined with the abolitionist Liberty party to form the Free-Soil party, which nominated Martin Van Buren for president. The party opposed the expansion of slavery into the territories.

Freedmen's Bureau  The Freedmen's Bureau was a federal postwar refugee agency set up to aid former slaves. It provided them food, clothing, and other necessities as well as helped them find work and set up schools. Congress overrode President Johnson's veto of a Freedmen's Bureau renewal bill in 1866.

freedom rides  Freedom rides, sponsored by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), were bus trips taken by both black and white civil rights advocates in the 1960s. They rode buses through the South to test the enforcement of federal regulations that prohibited segregation in interstate public transportation.

Freeport Doctrine  During the Lincoln-Douglas debates in 1858, Douglas declared that, even in the face of the "Dred Scott" decision, the people of a territory could exclude slavery simply by not passing the local ordinances essential for holding blacks in bondage. This Freeport Doctrine helped Douglas win reelection to the Senate, but, because it angered proslavery southern Democrats, it hurt his bid for the Democratic party's presidential nomination in 1860.

Fremont, John C.  Fremont was the presidential nominee of the new Republican party in 1856. Known as "the Pathfinder," he was a noted frontier soldier and a hero of the conquest of California during the Mexican War. He had little political experience.

French and Indian War  Also known as the Great War for the Empire and the Seven Years' War, the French and Indian War (1756-63) was a showdown between England and France for control of North America. With help from the American colonists, the British won this war and eliminated France as a power on the North American continent.

Fugitive Slave Law  As part of the Compromise of 1850, Congress passed a new Fugitive Slave Law. Under it, federal commissioners were authorized to compel citizens to assist in the return of runaway (fugitive) slaves, and fugitives could not testify in their own behalf and were denied a jury trial.

Fulbright, J. William  Arkansas senator Fulbright was chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in the 1960s. He was an opponent of adventurous foreign policy initiatives by President Kennedy in Cuba and President Johnson in Vietnam.

fundamentalism  Religious fundamentalists, found in larger numbers in the Baptist and Methodist churches of the South, and viewed as boors and hayseeds by sophisticated urbanites in the 1920s, were devoted to the literal truths of the King James Version of the Bible. Fundamentalism was profoundly conservative and anti-Darwinian, and it rejected modern urban culture.

G

Garfield, James A.  Garfield, a compromise "dark horse" nominee of the Republican party, was elected president in 1880. He was an indecisive leader. He was assassinated by Charles Guiteau four months after becoming president.

Garrison, William Lloyd  Garrison, publisher of "The Liberator," was a radical abolitionist. He called for immediate, uncompensated emancipation of slaves and for racial equality. His confrontational tactics and extremist views repelled moderate abolitionists as well as the general public.

Genet, Citizen   Genet was a special representative to the United States sent by the French government to seek support for the French Revolution. He was popularly received, but when he began recruiting ships and men for service to France, President Washington demanded his departure.

Gentlemen's Agreement  In 1906, the Japanese government agreed not to issue passports to Japanese workers intending to migrate to the United States. President Roosevelt reciprocated by getting the San Francisco school board to end its discriminatory segregation of Japanese students.

George III  King George III was condemned in the Declaration of Independence as the villain responsible for the colonists' loss of faith in the British empire. He, rather than Parliament, was held responsible because he personified the empire.

George, Henry  Henry George wrote "Progress and Poverty" in 1879. It was an attack on the maldistribution of wealth in the United States. He advocated a single tax on land as the solution to the growing gap between rich and poor.

Gettysburg  The four-day Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863 is usually considered the turning point of the Civil War. General Lee's forces were badly battered in the engagement and retreated into Virginia.

Gibbons v. Ogden  In "Gibbons v. Ogden" (1824), the Supreme Court ruled that states can regulate commerce that begins and ends in its own territory (intrastate trade), but when the transaction involves crossing a state line (interstate commerce), Congress's constitutional authority to regulate interstate trade takes precedence.

Gideon v. Wainwright  In 1962, the Supreme Court enlarged the rights of those accused of crime by its ruling in "Gideon v. Wainwright" that poor defendants were entitled to free legal counsel.

Gilbert, Humphrey  Gilbert was an English courtier whose interest in a Northwest Passage through North America to the Orient led him to an unsuccessful attempt to found an English colony in Newfoundland in the early 1580s. Gilbert was lost at sea on the return voyage.

Gladden, Washington  Gladden was the most influential preacher of the Social Gospel. In "Applied Christianity" (1886) he defended labor's right to organize and strike. Though he was not a socialist, Gladden nevertheless called for government regulation of industry and other economic and social reforms.

glasnost  "Glasnost" was the new policy of Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev to encourage political debate and criticism in the Soviet Union. It was coupled with "perestroika" to decentralize economic administration and reward individual enterprise.

Glidden, Joseph  Glidden invented barbed wire in 1874. It helped end the open range grazing of the cattle industry in the mid-1880s.

Glorious Revolution  In 1688, James II was exiled in order to secure English Protestantism and Parliament's power. In the colonies, the Glorious Revolution resulted in the collapse of the Dominion of New England and in several colonial rebellions against James II's appointed governors.

gold standard  Late-nineteenth-century advocates of the gold standard wanted all currency in circulation to be redeemable in gold. The United States was officially on the gold standard from 1900 to 1933.

Gompers, Samuel  Gompers was a long-time president of the American Federation of Labor. He advocated the use of the strike and the vote to win concessions from employers and business.

Good Neighbor policy  President Hoover's administration initiated a new approach to Western Hemispheric relations. The Good Neighbor policy declared America's intention to use cooperation and friendship in place of threats and armed intervention in its dealings with Latin American nations.

Gorbachev, Mikhail  Gorbachev became premier of the Soviet Union in 1985. More moderate and flexible than his predecessors, he encouraged political debate and free enterprise.

Gramm-Rudman  The Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Balanced Budget Act of 1985, popularly known as Gramm-Rudman, revised federal budgeting procedures. It authorized the president to impose automatic spending reductions to meet annual deficit limits.

grandfather clause  Literacy tests were one way southern states effectively prohibited African Americans from voting while not technically violating the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. Voters were required to be able to read and interpret the Constitution to the satisfaction of white voter-registration officials. If whites failed the test, they were allowed to vote anyway if their fathers and grandfathers had voted before 1867—a time when no blacks could vote.

Grant, Ulysses S.  In 1864, President Lincoln placed General Grant, victorious commander at Vicksburg, in command of all Union forces. He slowly battered Lee's armies into submission in the Wilderness Campaign around Richmond in 1864-1865, and accepted Lee's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse in 1865. He was elected president in 1868 and 1872. His administration was ridden with scandal.

Great American Desert  The Great American Desert was the nineteenth-century label for the Great Plains. The Plains seemed hostile and uninviting to agriculture and were largely a grassy, treeless area with low rainfall, seemingly a "desert."

Great Awakening  The Great Awakening was a widespread evangelical revival movement of the 1740s and 1750s. The Awakening divided congregations and weakened the authority of established churches in the colonies.

Great Compromise  In the Great Compromise, the Constitutional Convention decided that in the House of Representatives each state's number of seats were to be assigned according to its population (proportional representation) and filled by popular vote. In the Senate, each state was to have two members (equal representation) elected by its state legislature.

Great Migration  The Great Migration was the mass movement of Puritans to Massachusetts Bay that began in 1630 and continued into the 1640s. Bad times and religious persecution in England provoked it.

Great Society  President Johnson named his agenda to fight poverty, promote social welfare legislation, and advance civil rights the Great Society.

Greeley, Horace  Greeley was the editor of the "New York Tribune." Both the Liberal Republicans and the Democrats nominated him for president in 1872. He lost to President Grant.

Greenbackers  Greenbackers were those who, following the Civil War, hoped to inflate the currency and lower debts by keeping wartime paper currency (greenbacks) in circulation. They formed the Greenback party in 1874.

Greene, Nathanael  General Greene commanded patriot armies in the backcountry of North and South Carolina in 1778-1781. His guerrilla tactics harassed General Cornwallis's army as it moved toward Virginia and the decisive battle at Yorktown in 1781.

Grenville, George  Grenville became the king's first minister in 1763. He was eager to reduce government spending, and he proposed the Sugar and Stamp acts to raise revenue in the colonies to defray the expenses of Britain's expanded empire.

Grimke, Angelina   Angelina and Sarah Grimke, sisters from South Carolina, began their public careers in the abolitionist movement. Male abolitionists objected to their prominence in the movement, and the sisters turned to advocacy of women's rights.

Grimke, Sarah  Sarah and Angelina Grimke, sisters from South Carolina, began their public careers in the abolitionist movement. Male abolitionists objected to their prominence in the movement, and the sisters turned to advocacy of women's rights.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution  At President Johnson's request, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in 1964. It gave the president authority to deploy U.S. troops to repel aggression in Southeast Asia. President Johnson accepted its passage as a license to conduct war in Vietnam.

H

Hakluyt, Richard  Hakluyt was a proponent of English colonization in the New World. He tried to convince Queen Elizabeth I to aid the establishment of colonies, arguing that they would have important strategic and economic benefits for England.

Half-Way Covenant  When it was formally adopted in 1662, the Half-Way Covenant provided limited membership in the Puritan church. "Half-Way" members and their children could be baptized, but were not originally allowed to take communion or have a voice in church affairs.

Hamilton, Alexander   Hamilton was the first secretary of the treasury. He was the leading spokesman for a strong national government and organized the Federalist party.

Hanna, Mark  In American political jargon, a "kingmaker" is a political manipulator who, usually from behind the scenes, organizes the successful election of his chosen candidate. Mark Hanna was the kingmaker behind William McKinley's election to the presidency in 1896.

Harlem Renaissance  Harlem, an area in New York City, in the 1920s was the largest black community in the world outside of Africa and the cultural capital of African Americans. A multitude of talented black artists and writers found a biracial audience for their artistic and literary expressions of black pride and other themes.

Harpers Ferry raid  In 1859, abolitionist John Brown and his followers raided the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Brown planned to arm local slaves, lead an armed rebellion, and establish a black republic. Brown was arrested, tried for treason, and executed. He became a martyr in the eyes of northern abolitionists.

Hartford Convention  In December 1814, a group of Federalists met in Hartford, Connecticut, to protest the War of 1812 and propose several constitutional amendments. These antiwar Federalists were discredited when the United States achieved an honorable peace in the Treaty of Ghent that same month.

Harrison, Benjamin   Harrison, a noted waver of the "bloody shirt" accusing Democrats of treason for the Civil War, was elected president in 1888. Like other late-nineteenth-century presidents, he usually deferred to Congress for leadership on the issues.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel  New England's Puritan heritage and its continuing influence fascinated romantic novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne. His books, including "The Scarlet Letter," analyzed the themes of guilt and pride.

Hay, John  Secretary of State John Hay issued the turn-of-the-century Open Door notes that established America's policy in Asia—free trade and preservation of the territorial integrity of China. He also negotiated a number of treaties leading to the construction of the Panama Canal.

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty  In the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903), the United States guaranteed the independence of Panama and provided America leasehold on the Canal Zone and the right to fortify it.

Hay-Herran Convention  The Hay-Herran Convention (1903) gave the United States leasehold on a strip of land in the Isthmus of Panama, then part of Colombia. The Colombian government failed to ratify the agreement, Panama declared its independence, and the United States leased the area from Panama.

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty  The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty set aside the 1850 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between the United States and Britain. Hay-Pauncefote gave the United States the right to build and fortify an isthmian canal through Central America. The United States agreed to keep the canal open to ships of all nations.

Hayes, Rutherford B.  Ohio governor Rutherford Hayes was the Republican nominee for president in 1876. He was elected when twenty disputed electoral college votes were given him by a special electoral commission. Hayes, a Union veteran, was president from 1877 to 1881. He ended military Reconstruction, then assumed a caretaker approach to his office. He was honest and moderate, but not a strong leader.

Haymarket riot  In 1886, a meeting was called to protest the killing of a worker during a strike. The protest at Haymarket Square in Chicago was ended by a mysterious bomb blast that killed seven policemen. It resulted in public condemnation of organized labor and the demise of the Knights of Labor.

Head Start  In 1964, Congress created the Head Start program to prepare children for elementary school. It also improved the health of children by providing medical examinations and good meals. It was one of the most successful Great Society programs.

Hemingway, Ernest  Hemingway was the most talented of America's expatriate writers in the 1920s. His many books portrayed his sense of life's meaninglessness and the amorality of modern life. He was a legend in his own time.

Henry, Patrick  Henry, a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses, suggested in May 1765 that Parliament had no legal authority to tax the colonies.

Hepburn Act  The 1906 Hepburn Act put teeth in the regulatory power of the Interstate Commerce Commission. It gave the commission power to inspect railroad companies' records, set maximum rates, and outlaw free passes, which were often used to influence politicians.

Hernan Cortes  Cortes was the Spanish conquistador who subdued Mexico and the Aztec empire.

higher law  During the debate over the Compromise of 1850, New York senator William Seward, an abolitionist, argued against any concessions to the slave interests by claiming that a "higher law," God's law, superseded the Constitution's provision for the return of runaway slaves and any countenance of the evils of slavery in American territory.

Highway Act of 1956  A significant legislative achievement of Eisenhower's presidency, the Highway Act created the interstate highway system. The system, built over twenty years, provided jobs in construction, shortened travel times, and increased dependence on the automobile while weakening the railroads.

Hiroshima  Hiroshima, Japan, a city of 344,000 persons, was the target of the first atomic bombing in history. On August 6, 1945, 78,000 Japanese were killed in Hiroshima and 100,000 more were injured. Over 96 percent of the city's buildings were destroyed.

Hiss, Alger   In 1948, "Time" editor and former communist Whittaker Chambers accused State Department officer Alger Hiss of having been a communist in the 1930s. Hiss sued Chambers for libel, but was himself convicted of perjury. The Hiss case fed the fears of many Americans that a communist underground was operating in the United States and had agents within the government.

Ho Chi Minh  Ho Chi Minh was North Vietnam's leader during the Vietnam War. He was an intense nationalist and a communist. He died in 1970.

Homestead Act  In 1862, Congress passed the Homestead Act, which gave 160 acres of public land to any settler who would farm the land for five years. It encouraged westward migration into the Great Plains after the Civil War.

Homestead strike  A company decision to crush the workers' union provoked a strike at the Homestead steel plant in Pittsburgh in 1892. With ruthless use of force, strikebreakers, and public support behind them, company officials effectively broke the strike and destroyed the union.

Hooker, Thomas  Hooker, a dissatisfied Massachusetts Bay Puritan, led a company of followers to found a colony at Hartford (Connecticut) in 1636.

Hopkins, Harry   In 1935, President Roosevelt put his close friend and personal advisor Harry Hopkins in charge of the WPA. Hopkins had earlier administered the FERA and later would administer the Lend-Lease Act and serve as chairman of the World War II War Production Board.

House of Burgesses  The House of Burgesses was established in Virginia in 1619 as an advisory body to the colony's governors. It was the seed of the system of representative government in English America.

Houston, Sam  Sam Houston was the commander of Texan armies in the Texas Revolution. He became the first president of the Republic of Texas in 1836. He was later a Texas senator and governor.

Howe, William  General Howe took command of British troops in North America after the Battle of Bunker Hill. He captured New York and Philadelphia, but botched the plan to isolate the New England colonies in 1777.

Howells, William Dean  A leading late-nineteenth-century literary realist and influential critic, Howells described both the genteel, middle-class world he knew and the whole range of metropolitan life. "Silas Lapham," his masterpiece, dealt with the ethical conflicts inherent in a competitive society.

Huerta, Victoriano  Huerta ruthlessly seized power in Mexico in 1913. President Wilson objected to Huerta's murderous methods and refused to extend diplomatic recognition to his government. Huerta abdicated in 1914.

Hughes, Charles Evans   Hughes, a progressive Republican, was that party's presidential nominee in 1916. Later, he was a secretary of state and chief justice of the United States.

Humphrey, Hubert  President Johnson's vice president, Hubert Humphrey, was the Democratic Party candidate for president in 1968. He had a lengthy record of support for social-welfare and civil-rights legislation. His support for Johnson's war policies cost him some liberal Democratic votes, and he narrowly lost the 1968 election to Richard Nixon.

Hundred Days  The Hundred Days designates the period between Franklin Roosevelt's inauguration as president on March 4, 1933, and the adjournment of Congress on June 16, 1933. During this period, Congress passed an immense body of legislation requested by Roosevelt to try to stimulate the depressed economy.

Hussein, Saddam  Hussein, president of Iraq, ordered the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 that resulted in the Persian Gulf War.

Hutchinson, Anne   Hutchinson was a Massachusetts Bay Puritan who was banished for criticizing the colony's ministers and magistrates and for her adherence to the heresy of Antinomianism.

I

Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965  The Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965 abolished the old national origins quota system, limited the number of visas from all continents, and allowed preferences on the basis of family relationships, needed job skills, and political asylum.

impeachment  Impeachment generally means to bring charges against a public official for misbehavior in office. The House impeached President Johnson in 1867 for violating the Tenure of Office Act and other allegations, but a Senate trial failed to convict him of the charges.

implied powers  The doctrine of implied powers, articulated by Alexander Hamilton, argued that Congress's powers went beyond those explicitly provided in the Constitution; that so long as a bill's purpose was constitutional, Congress had the power to enact it. This is also called "loose construction" of the Constitution. Thomas Jefferson argued that the Constitution must be strictly followed as written—there was little or no room for interpreting additional powers for the national government. This strict-constructionist view ran counter to the Hamilton's implied-powers view.

impressment  The British navy used press gangs to commandeer manpower for naval service. During the Napoleonic Wars, British captains impressed seamen from neutral vessels, even naturalized American citizens. America's sense of national honor was outraged, and impressment became a cause of war in 1812.

indentured servitude  Indentured servitude was a form of apprenticeship or bonded (contract) labor initiated in England's American colonies by Virginia planters. It provided a way for Europeans who could not afford to pay their own passage to get to America. In return for payment of their transportation expenses, these immigrants agreed to work for several years. Indentured servants were often abused and exploited by their masters.

independent subtreasury  To ensure the absolute safety of federal funds, President Van Buren proposed and Congress passed legislation creating an independent treasury. This took the federal government out of banking. All payments to the government were to be made in hard cash which was to be stored in government vaults until needed.

Indian removal  President Jackson viewed Indians as savages who were incapable of self-government. He pursued a policy of removing Indians from the path of westward settlement. By 1840, most eastern tribes had been relocated to lands west of the Mississippi River.

inflation  The most disturbing domestic problem facing the United States during the Carter presidency (1977-1981) was soaring inflation, primarily the result of skyrocketing energy costs. Double-digit inflation—10 percent and up—had a devastating effect on those living on fixed incomes, and it reduced inclinations to save and invest, thus slowing economic growth.

injunction  An injunction is a court order restraining someone from acting. In the late nineteenth century, the courts frequently issued injunctions against striking workers, thus weakening their unions.

Inter-American Conference  The Inter-American Conference (1889) was a disappointment to Secretary of State James Blaine. He wanted a trade reciprocity agreement with Latin American nations that would stimulate the marketing of U.S. goods. But the conference merely created a Pan-American Union to promote commercial and cultural exchanges.

internal improvements  Following the War of 1812, federal aid to finance internal improvements became a divisive political issue. Internal improvements included various construction enterprises such as turnpikes, canals, river and harbor clearing projects, and so on. The National Road was the first federally funded internal improvement project.

Interstate Commerce Commission  When the Supreme Court ruled in the "Wabash" case (1886) that a state's power to regulate railroads was limited, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act (1887) creating the ICC, America's first federal regulatory agency. Originally, it had little real authority.

Intolerable Acts  Parliament responded to the Boston Tea Party by passing the Coercive Acts in 1774. They were unjust acts in that they were intended to punish Boston and Massachusetts generally for the crime committed by a few individuals. Colonists called these the Intolerable Acts.

Iran-Contra affair  The Iran-Contra affair involved officials high in the Reagan administration secretly selling arms to Iran and using the proceeds illegally and unconstitutionally to finance the Contra rebels in Nicaragua. The transaction violated the Boland Amendment and usurped the congressional power of the purse.

Iron Curtain  British Prime Minister Winston Churchill coined the term "Iron Curtain" to refer to the boundary in Europe that divided Soviet-dominated eastern and central Europe from western Europe, which was free from Soviet domination.

irreconcilables  The handful of Senate "irreconcilables," led by Senator Borah of Idaho, were basically isolationists who were uncompromising in their opposition to U.S. membership in the League of Nations.

island hopping  Island hopping was the American strategy in the Pacific during World War II. It involved a leapfrogging movement of American forces from one strategic island to the next until American forces were in control of the Pacific and prepared to invade Japan.

IWW  "Big Bill" Haywood was an organizer of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), an openly anticapitalist labor organization. The "Wobblies" hoped to create an inclusive union of mass-production workers.

J

Jackson, Stonewall  General Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson was one of the Confederacy's key military commanders and an expert on cavalry maneuvers. He was killed at the Battle of Chancellorsville (1863), when he was accidentally shot by one of his own soldiers.

Jacksonian democracy  The concept of Jacksonian democracy glorified the equality of all adult white males—the common man. It disliked anything that smacked of special privilege and rejected the elitist view that only the proven "best" men should be chosen to manage public affairs.

Jacksonian Democrats  Andrew Jackson's Democratic party generally championed the principles of equal opportunity, absolute political freedom (for white males), glorification of the "common man," and limited government.

James, William  James was the founder of the discipline of psychology. He was the most influential philosopher of his time. Contrary to the prevailing environmentalism, James held an axiomatic belief in free will. He was America's leading proponent of pragmatism.

Jamestown  The London (Virginia) Company was a joint-stock company chartered in 1606 that was responsible for founding the first permanent English settlement in America: Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607.

Jay, John  Jay coauthored "The Federalist," served as chief justice, and negotiated the controversial Jay Treaty with Britain in 1794-1795.

Jay's Treaty  John Jay negotiated a treaty with Britain in 1794 in which the British agreed to evacuate posts in the American Northwest and settle some maritime disputes. Jay agreed to accept Britain's definition of America's neutral rights. The terms of the treaty provoked a storm of protest, but it was narrowly ratified in 1795.

Jay-Gardoqui agreement  In 1785, diplomat John Jay negotiated an agreement with Don Diego de Gardoqui, a Spanish official, that fell short of achieving what Congress wanted—the restoration of U.S. rights to navigation on the Mississippi River. Disappointed, Congress terminated the negotiations.

Jefferson, Thomas  Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence, helped organize the Republican party in the 1790s, and became the third president of the United States.

Johnson, Lyndon B.  Texas senator Johnson was a master of the legislative process. He was elected vice president in 1960 and became president when Kennedy was assassinated in 1963. He was elected president in 1964, but his Great Society and civil rights programs were overshadowed by his decisions that mired the United States in the Vietnam War.

joint resolution  A joint resolution of Congress requires a simple majority vote in each house to pass. After falling short of the two-thirds majority needed in the Senate to ratify a treaty to annex Texas in 1844, Texas was annexed by a joint resolution in 1845.

joint-stock company  English merchants invested in companies similar to modern corporations. These joint-stock companies enabled investors to pool capital for commercial and colony-planting activity.

Jones, Samuel M.  "Golden Rule" Jones was the progressive reform mayor of Toledo, Ohio, at the turn of the twentieth century. He, like other reform mayors, launched a massive assault on dishonesty and inefficiency in urban government.

Judiciary Act of 1801  The lame-duck Federalist Congress created several new federal courts in the Judiciary Act of 1801. Just before leaving office, President Adams made several "midnight appointments" of loyal Federalist to these courts. The new Republican Congress repealed the act and many appointments were never delivered.

The Jungle  Socialist journalist Upton Sinclair's novel "The Jungle" was a devastating revelation of the filth in Chicago's slaughterhouses. Its publication helped President Roosevelt pressure Congress into enacting meat inspection and pure-food and -drug legislation.

K

Kansas-Nebraska Act  In 1854, Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, a proposal to organize the remaining Louisiana Purchase Territory. Since the Missouri Compromise had banned slavery in that territory, his proposal to use popular sovereignty to determine the fate of slavery in the territory outraged northerners. The bill passed, spurring northern opponents of slavery's expansion to organize the Republican Party.

Kellogg-Briand Pact  The 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact was a moral indictment of war. It was an "international kiss" that outlawed war as an instrument of national policy, but it contained no enforcement mechanism.

Kennan, George  Foreign service officer George Kennan was the key idea man behind the containment doctrine. His knowledge of Soviet history led him to conclude that the Soviets saw capitalist-communist conflict as inevitable. Kennan concluded that the only way to deal with that mentality was for the United States to contain communism by resisting Soviet aggression wherever it might occur.

Kennedy, John F.  Massachusetts senator Kennedy was elected president in 1960. He had trouble getting cooperation from Congress on his domestic policy and faced multiple and complex problems in the conduct of foreign policy in Cuba, Europe, and Vietnam. He was assassinated in 1963.

Kennedy, Robert  Kennedy was attorney general in his brother's administration, where he vigorously pursued civil-rights cases. He was later elected senator from New York, and he campaigned as an antiwar presidential candidate in 1968. He was assassinated just prior to the 1968 Democratic National Convention.

Kent State  During a protest at Kent State University in 1970 against the Cambodian incursion, Ohio National Guardsmen fired on the student demonstrators, killing four. The tragedy provoked larger and more frequent demonstrations on college campuses.

Kerouac, Jack  Kerouac is recognized as the founder of the "beat" school of post-World War II literature. He wrote "On the Road" (1957), the novel considered to be the primary testament of the "beat generation" of the 1950s.

King Cotton diplomacy  At the outset of the Civil War, Confederates were confident that Britain and France could be brought to assist the Confederacy because the European textile industries were dependent on supplies of southern cotton. To their dismay, Europeans found alternative supplies of raw cotton, and King Cotton diplomacy failed.

King Jr., Martin Luther  King emerged as the national leader of the civil rights movement during the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955. He advocated nonviolent resistance as a protest strategy. He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1968.

King Philip's War  Wampanoag chieftain Metacomet (called King Philip by the English) in 1675-1676 led a violent war against English Puritan settlers in the Connecticut Valley. The effort exhausted the Indians' resources and signaled the dominance of the white settlers.

<